PRINT & COMMUNICATIONS
Writing and communication can be traced back as far as the cave paintings and drawings on clay. The Egyptians wrote on papyrus and skins while the Greeks and Romans carved in wood and stone. However, the most influential development came from the Chinese with the invention of paper, block printing and movable type. These developments found their way to Europe and with Johannes Guttenberg's printing press, the publishing industry was born. Movable type was not a huge success in China due to the large amount of characters in the Chinese alphabet, but the Chinese contribution to the evolution of visual communications in Europe and America was formidable. China's invention of paper and printing spread slowly westward, arriving in Europe as learning and culture was beginning to spread. Up to Guttenberg's time everything written was a one-off; there was no such thing as multiple copies, but movable type and the printing press ensured the growth of mass publishing in Europe.
The idea of a publication as a news giving service had its origins, although somewhat limited, in the Roman Empire. Caesar published the happenings of the Senate in the form of a gazette for his people. In China, a "tipao" carried official announcements and news for the bureaucrats. It had been difficult for any kind of widespread publishing to take place until the invention of the printing press, paper and movable type, however following this, developments were rapid. Pamphlets as part of the Reformation in Europe during the Middle Ages were followed by broadsides, news books, news sheets, gazettes and then newspapers in the form with which we are familiar today. 2
The industrial revolution saw the beginning of a widespread mass media. Only with the technological advances and social developments could publishing begin to dominate our lives. Technological advances included the introduction of the Linotype machine and advances in photography. Socially, there was a population explosion, a growing spread in literacy and an increase in leisure time. The literature was put into new hands with literacy programmes and more and more libraries. All of this resulted in a widening readership.
MASS COMMUNICATIONS & MAGAZINES
Mass communication is a term which was first coined in the 1930¹s, "mass" meaning "great volume, range or extent" and "communication" meaning the "transmission and reception of messages". 3 This transmission is not just by a sender or publisher but also includes the idea of response, sharing and interaction. Magazines both printed and digital are a major part of this "mass". They are part of a mass media, a mass which has a potential means of influence, control and innovation in society. Mass media is evident today in television, radio, film, newspapers, advertising; any media which reaches a large amount of people. It is a very important element of our lives; it is where many affairs of public life are played out; the source of an ordered and public meaning system which provides a benchmark for what is normal; a major source of definitions and images of social reality; and between film, television and radio it is the largest source of entertainment.4
Magazines fit neatly within these parameters. It can be said they perform all of the aforementioned functions and are a part of a huge publishing industry, encompassing books, newspapers, magazines and digital media. Magazines aim to take words and ideas and combine them with images to reflect, reinforce and enhance a point of view. They have gone through many stages, developing design and improving technology.
Most developments originated in Europe, where Guttenberg and the Industrial revolution took place, but inevitably these achievements found their way to the United States. As in Europe, there was an increasing rise in literacy, lowering production costs and growth in advertising and this pushed the numbers of newspapers and magazines published in America from eight hundred to five thousand between 1830 and 1860. By 1870, magazines, due to their widening readership, were being used extensively for general advertising which lowered prices again, which in turn ensured an even wider circulation. 5
Monthly and weekly magazines such as Harper's Weekly, Harper's Bazaar and Leslie's Weekly delighted their readers with beautiful woodcut illustrations and serialised fiction. (see figures 1-4) The period from the 1890's to the 1940's was regarded as the "golden age" of magazines. This period saw visual communications in America dominated by the illustrators. Often the work of the illustrators was deemed more important that the typographic layout and this sometimes resulted in incohesive spreads. Many illustrators were unconcerned with type and how the illustration would work with type. Charles Dana Gibson's poster for Scriber's Weekly is such an example; an exquisite illustration ruined by incompatible typefaces added by a printer. (see figure 5)
Illustrators such as Gibson, Howard Pyle, Norman Rockwell and J.C. Leyendecker became synonymous with magazines such as the Saturday Evening Post, Holiday, the Ladies Home Journal and Good Housekeeping. These magazines reflected social changes and contributed to the so-called "American Dream". (see figures 6 & 7)
The advances in photography mentioned earlier, inevitably saw the end of the illustrated magazines but not magazines themselves. New types of magazines such as photo journals like Life flourished and continued to flourish until the 1950's when the television was invented. With television the printed page began to face competition. Magazines had so far occupied the reader's attention with snippets of news, gossip and entertainment, and now television offered a moving image with sound and a variety of channels. Choice became very important with a multitude of options at the viewers fingertips. This was a new media which quickly grabbed the attention of the public. With this new competition, the popularity of magazines waned and publishers had to fight for the remaining readership. This was a period in which magazines were changed forever. Distinct magazine identities and images began to emerge, logos were redesigned for maximum newsstand recognition and impact. Nowadays we easily recognise our favourite newspapers and magazines on the shelf even if we only see a small section. This is a result of clever designing by the publishers. Covers also became very important for the same reason. They had to stand outfrom the other publications and attract the casual buyer.
In the 1950's, television saw the end of the general interest lifestyle magazines such as the Saturday Evening Post, Colliers and Look. In order to survive the onslaught of television, magazines had to become more focused and specialised. They had to cater for an audience which was thirsty for content, a content which was not available on the television. This content was of a more specific kind and if we look at a newsstand today, there are thousands of speciality magazines but very few, if any, general interest titles. Reader's have fine-tuned their individual interests and it is widely agreed that "among regularly scheduled mass media, none are so fragmented as magazines." 6 In a way this fragmentation set the way for the VCR, cable television and radio in that they gave the user exactly what they wanted. Choice is the most important facility a communication provider can give its customer. As a result of this fragmentation a tremendous onus was placed on the magazine¹s design to entice, engage and grab the reader.
In consequence these challenges meant the relationship between the art director and the editor became more and more important to the survival of the magazine. The publishing design formulae set during this period are the same formulae by which magazines are designed today.
PUBLICATION DESIGN
When considering the design of a magazine, the size is of huge importance. The size of a publication is usually determined by technical or marketing constraints. For example Speak magazine had to completely alter the size and cover of their publication due to difficulties with the US postal system. It reduced its size from 10 x 12 inches (25.5 x 31.5 cm) to 10.5 x 8.5 inches (21.5 x 27.5 cm), and completely changed its logo to be more identifiable and legible, also required by the postal system. (see figures 8 & 9)
Other magazines have also gone through this change. High postal rates, paper shortages and rising paper and printing costs shrunk large format periodicals, for example McCall¹s and Esquire went from 10 x 13 inches (25.5 x 33.4 cm) to what became the standard format size of 8.5 x 11 inches (21 x 17.5 cm).7 Size is crucial to a magazine; it reflects the character of the publication and its audience. Large format magazines these days are usually of a music or culture genre, and aimed at a young audience. Such publications include Ray Gun (USA), Big (Spain), Hot Press (Ireland), Billboard (USA).
The contents of all magazines are laid out in a complex system of grids. This has been the case since the very first publications. A magazine aims to present the information or text in such a way that the reader is not thinking about the layout. It is essentially "invisible design". A grid divides the page into areas which serve different purposes, for example columns of text, marginal comments, headlines, footnotes, captions and illustrations. In a publication like a novel, the text needs to be in a single column, whereas a newspaper or magazine employs a complex system, like that illustrated in figures 10 and 11. They clearly show the structure behind the layouts. Magazine grids are quite complex, because the content changes with each page, but most have a basic flexible grid which acts like a common denominator. Most magazines have columns which at six words (35-40 characters) per line at 10pt type size equals a column width of 55-60mm. Three such columns fit into the average page size of a magazine sized 8.5 x 11 inches and this is the most common basic layout.8 (see figure 12)
The design of the magazine within these grids is obviously of huge importance. This is especially so since the fragmentation which was discussed in the previous section. Without design a magazine is merely a mix of separate elements. With design, it is a disciplined entity. According to Steven Heller in Magazines: Inside & Out, good design is measured on an overall intelligent scheme. This includes lively pacing, authoritative typography, sophisticated visuals and an element of surprise. However, while a magazine design is hugely important to the consistency and the look and feel of a magazine, a magazine is only as good as its content. The design enhances content, it does not replace it. 9 "It is a designer's responsibility to bring good content forward, simply, strongly, beautifully. And that is all there is to magazine design."10
ALTERNATIVE MAGAZINES
An area of controversy which has existed for decades is that of "alternative" magazines. This has been played out increasingly in the pages of todays' journals. Usually artistic or cultural in scope, they experiment with size, format, content and design. There is not always an apparent grid, and the design schemes sometimes seem "totally mutable". It has been said that "Consistency has become the hobgoblin of creativity." 11 Such magazines include Beach Culture (USA), Ray Gun (USA), Speak (USA), Emigre (USA), Big (Spain), Say (USA), Cut (Japan) and Map (USA). Possibly the only concession to tradition is a consistent logo, but even this, the most identifiable component of any magazine, is susceptible to change or a different treatment in each issue. Ray Gun, a popular music magazine, has come under particular scrutiny due to its experimental typographic treatments inside the magazine. (see figures 13-16) It's former designer David Carson, responsible for this design style explains his reasoning,
"...we have an audience that allows us a little more freedom and seems to enjoy having to figure some things out and being involved in the magazine...People are taking in information differently these days...we're exploring and experimenting with new ways to present information... I don't think that young people will read a grey page of type as readily as they might have in the past...." 12
However while most agree that designers like Carson are "inspiring", not all agree with his reasoning. His work has been described as,
"....formally stunning , but it's relevance to the content is not always clear. The design functions decoratively as a means of engaging, amusing, persuading and no doubt sometimes infuriating the reader than as vehicles for extending meaning or exploring the text." 13
Typography within a magazine is equally as important as a complex grid or striking cover. According to some within the publishing industry, in general "typography for magazines benefits from restraint, and these magazines that use two or three typefaces are far better than those that use the whole type book." 14 Consistent typography contributes to create and hold a magazine's "voice" or "identity". It is these rules regarding grids and typography which such magazines are bending and breaking. It is essential to know how to both abide by these rules and when to break them. Although the style these magazines employ may not make its way to well designed "establishment" journals, their influence has been huge, inspiring a broader typographic leeway in a whole range of magazines.
Publication design is constantly going through changes. It is a process. "You have to go through one issue to get to the next. It's a continual growth process and the magazine evolves." 15 However it now faces one of the biggest challenges yet, that of digital media.
footnotes
2.see communication dateline, Appendix 8
3. Denis McQuail, Mass Communication Theory, 3rd Edition, Sage Publications, London, 1994, Pg. 10
4. McQuail, op. cit,. Pg. 1
5. Philip Meggs, A History of Graphic Design, Van Norstrand Reinhold, New York, 992 , Pg. 170
6. Irving Fang, A History of Mass Communications: 6 Information Revolutions, Butterworth-Heineman, USA, 1997, Pg. 104
7. Philip Meggs, A History of Graphic Design, Van Norstrand Reinhold, New York, 992 , Pg. 363
8. Erik Spiekermann, Stop Stealing Sheep, Adobe Press, USA, 1993, Pg. 139
9. Steven Heller & Teresa Fernandes, Magazines: Inside & Out, Pbc. Intl., USA, 1996 , Pg. 8
10. Martin B. Peterson (Edited by), Graphis Publication, Graphis Press, New York,1992, Pg. 39
11. Heller, op.cit. Pg. 8
12. Rudy Vanderlans, In conversation with David Carson, Emigre No. 27
13. ibid
14. Peterson, op.cit. Pg. 35
15. Vanderlans, op.cit
