Richard Rorty (see below) asks: "How should we organise our private and public lives in a sceptical, mass media world? How can we even set about being ethical persons?" Here are some suggestions.

 

A BRIEF BRIEF HISTORY OF ETHICS

 

 

 SOCRETES (Regarded as the first serious philosopher, born 469BC) states 'The unexamined life is not worth living' another famous saying of Socretes is 'know yourself' . He claimed that moral knowledge really existed and was worth pursuing for it's own sake. Socretes believed that one of the most important things human beings should do is get people thinking by asking questions.

So what should I do? Keep asking questions but chart your own moral course!

 

PLATO (b.428BC) claims we live in 'two worlds of knowledge' 'Empirical', or the world of the senses, which is a shadowy view of the world that we think of as the 'real world' where we live as though chained in a cave unable to see beyond the cave entrance, and 'Rational' in which the world is recognised through reason. a more real world where we are released from our chains. Morality is not a human convention, but part of the structure of the Universe itself!

SO? Understand how to live by the use of reason!

 

ARISTOTLE( b.384BC)The ethics of common sense. Virtue must be practised, but not to extremes. Courage ought not become foolhardiness, love should not be overwhelming etc. Moderation in all things is the key to happiness.

AND? Be happy. Be virtuous. But don't overdo things!

 

The CYNICS claimed that happiness lay in cultivating an indifference to possessions and worldly ambitions. They said that these things corrupted the soul. Diogenes, who famously lived in a barrel, was a prominent Cynic. Cynics also claim that being born into a wealthy or a devout family is fortunate but not to have been born at all is by far the best!

MEANING? This world is so corrupt you would be as well off off out of it!

 

STOICS; we are all governed by natural laws, and live to obey them, so we must accept whatever life throws at us with calmness and courage. The wise man therefore limits his wants and desires to things that are achievable.

BUT? Virtue is everything! Just be indifferent to either pain or pleasure!

 

EPICURIANS Dedicated themselves to getting as much pleasure as possible from life, in other words 'eat, drink and be merry', but they would often deny themselves their basic needs, suffering tortures like days of fasting so that the thrill experienced when they ended their fasting would excite their senses pleasurably.

MAD? Just squeeze every bit of pleasure you possibly can out of life!

 

 

DETERMINISM claims that the future is as unchangeable as the past. If Determinism is correct it would mean that there could be no such thing as free will. Whatever we do it has 'been written' and so cannot be altered.

THIS MEANS ? Everything in the future is already decided, so don't bother your head trying to change things!

 

 

CHRISTIAN ETHICS is typified by the Golden Rule - "do unto others as though you were the others". Saint Thomas Aquinus (b.1224) states that if secular law is not in accordance with Natural Law (Gods Law) we have a right not to obey it. Some famous quotes of Jesus'; "love your enemies, do good to them who hate you", "love each other as I have loved you" and "love God above all". People are still arguing about what exactly Jesus meant by these words. Maybe he means exactly what he said! .Many have turned to the Bible for enlightenment, and are guided by the Ten Commandments.

WHAT SHOULD I DO? Just live a good and prayerful life and earn your place in heaven!

 

 

RELATIVISM. Morality can mean different things in different societies. However
ABSOLUTISM claims there are 'core values' which are true for all societies.

TWO THEORIES? Yes, In either case always do the same as everyone else!

 

 

MODERN SECTION

ANARCHY; Frenchman Jean Jacques Rouseau (b.1712), one of the founders of Anarchy, believed that people would be much better off if they could dispense with government, police and armies, live naturally, and make their own rules in their own communities for living their lives. People would rule themselves through what Anarchists call 'the General Will' of the people.

Sounds OK. So how to behave? If you want to be an Anarchist distrust all authority; and despise those who wear uniforms, like policemen or Judges for instance!

 

UTILITARIANISM; Jeremy Bentham (b.1748) and John Mill (b.1806) claim that humans have two masters, Pain and Pleasure, which rule us relentlessly. "Instead of vague ideas about conscience or feelings we must classify and measure any action in terms of the number of units of pain or pleasure it will produce. Their "One Great Principle is " seek the greatest happiness for the greatest number"

TO BE A Utilitarianist Make sure you're among the "greatest number" when happiness is being shared out!

 

EMMANUAL KANT (b.1724) Noted for inventing the term 'Categorical Imperative' Doing our duty always implies obeying certain compulsory moral laws, even if these laws do not suit us personally. Kant explains how we can find out what the compulsory rules are. He asks us to imagine what would happen if we 'universalised' what we wanted to do. Say we wanted to steal, then if everyone stole from everyone else all the time society would collapse, so we must conclude that stealing would be illogical and therefore wrong.

SO? If you think you might be doing wrong, put it to Kant's's categorical imperative test!

 

DAVID HUME (b.1711) claims that moral statements by Utilitarians or anyone else are merely expressions of opinions which are merely psychological and not logical. We allow sentiment to guide us as we make moral choices.

AND? Ignore everyone else, your own deep convictions are what matter!

 

EXISTENTIONALISM. Frenchman Jean Paul Sartre (b.1905) tells us that every individual is unique and therefore moral philosophy cannot be derived from a definition of the problems of existence or what it is like to be a particular person living in this world.

SO WHAT? Again,, your individual convictions are what matter!

 

MODERNISM is not necessarily modern but a term for any philosophic theory that puts it's faith in reason. Also referred to as the Enlightenment. These philosophers' quests are for certainty in knowledge and analyze language to deliver exact meanings, and see Ethics as grounded in rational theory.

MEANING? These guys like the rest of us are not too sure about anything!

 

POST MODERNISM; Maintains that "Reason" is a fiction because of it's human linguistic construct, and it is partly the worship of this "Reason" that has been the cause of much self-inflicted human suffering and is completely sceptical about the existence of any kind of 'Rational Knowledge' or the possibility of using 'Reason' to understand. It is even more doubtful about the existence of 'Human Nature' and questions all. We live in a Relativistic universe where there are only human truths and human ethics. Lack of moral certainty has led to appalling problems for humanity, like societies that believe in slavery for instance, or others that believe in 'racial purity'.

CRAZY OR WHAT? Yes, man's reasonable behavior causes many problems!

 

 

Get people thinking. RICHARD RORTY (b.1931) invites us to celebrate the post modernist vision in which notions of objectivity have vanished, we can then pursue a life of curiosity which will be free and inventive. There are no objective truths, what we call philosophy has come to so many cul-de-sacs in moral theory that perhaps we need to re-evaluate what philosophy is. We need a sense of "Us" embracing all humanity. Here is a quote from Rorty.
" In my utopia, human solidarity would be seen not as a fact to be recognised by clearing away "prejudice" or burrowing down to previously hidden depths but, rather, as a goal to be achieved. It is to be achieved not by inquiry but by imagination, the imaginative ability to see strange people as fellow sufferers. Solidarity is not discovered by reflection but created. It is created by increasing our sensitivity to the particular details of the pain and humiliation of other, unfamiliar sorts of people".
A feeling of group solidarity is a foundational component in the process of establishing ethical norms and obligations. Ideally the group should be as inclusive as to encompass all of humanity.

AND? Consider yourself just an ordinary member of humanity, at one with all people!

 

ALBERT EINSTEIN (b1901) Our Delusions: Man experiences himself, his thoughts and feelings as something separated from the rest, a kind of optical delusion of his consciousness. This delusion is like a prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us. Our task must be to free ourselves from this prison by widening our circle of compassion to embrace all living creatures and the whole of nature in its beauty.

So, a prison without bars? Absolutely. Are you imprisoned by your consciousness?

 

JURGEN HABERMAS (b. 1929) Discourse Ethics. Habermas suggested that the moral point of view could be found by taking into consideration the viewpoints of all who would be affected by the adoption of certain moral actions, laws or rules. He believes in consensus ethics, consultation, dialogue and asking questions. See SOCRETES (b.469BC).

DOES THAT MEAN WE'VE GONE FULL CIRCLE? You guessed it! Back to Socretes and square one!