To demonstrate the feasibility of viral attack and the degree to which it is a threat, several experiments were performed. In each case, experiments were performed with the knowledge and consent of systems administrators. In the process of performing experiments, implementation flaws were meticulously avoided. It was critical that these experiments not be based on implementation lapses, but only on fundamental flaws in security policies.
On November 3, 1983, the first virus was conceived of as an experiment to be presented at a weekly seminar on computer security. The concept was first introduced in this seminar by the author, and the name 'virus' was thought of by Len Adleman. After 8 hours of expert work on a heavily loaded VAX 11/750 system running Unix, the first virus was completed and ready for demonstration. Within a week, permission was obtained to perform experiments, and 5 experiments were performed. On November 10, the virus was demonstrated to the security seminar.
The initial infection was implanted in 'vd', a program that displays Unix file structures graphically, and introduced to users via the system bulletin board. Since vd was a new program on the system, no performance characteristics or other details of its operation were known. The virus was implanted at the beginning of the program so that it was performed before any other processing.
In order to keep the attack under control several precautions were taken. All infections were performed manually by the attacker, and no damage was done, only reporting. Traces were included to assure that the virus would not spread without detection, access controls were used for the infection process, and the code required for the attack was kept in segments, each encrypted and protected to prevent illicit use.
In each of five attacks, all system rights were granted to the attacker in under an hour. The shortest time was under 5 minutes, and the average under 30 minutes. Even those who knew the attack was taking place were infected. In each case, files were 'disinfected' after experimentation to assure that no user's privacy would be violated. It was expected that the attack would be successful, but the very short takeover times were quite surprising. In addition, the virus was fast enough (under 1/2 second) that the delay to infected programs went unnoticed.
Once the results of the experiments were announced, administrators decided that no further computer security experiments would be permitted on their system. This ban included the planned addition of traces which could track potential viruses and password augmentation experiments which could potentially have improved security to a great extent. This apparent fear reaction is typical, rather than try to solve technical problems technically, policy solutions are often chosen.
After successful experiments had been performed on a Unix system, it was quite apparent that the same techniques would work on many other systems. In particular, experiments were planned for a Tops-20 system, a VMS system, a VM/370 system, and a network containing several of these systems. In the process of negotiating with administrators, feasibility was demonstrated by developing and testing prototypes. Prototype attacks for the Tops-20 system were developed by an experienced Tops-20 user in 6 hours, a novice VM/370 user with the help of an experienced programmer in 30 hours, and a novice VMS user without assistance in 20 hours. These programs demonstrated the ability to find files to be infected, infect them, and cross user boundaries.
After several months of negotiation and administrative changes, it was decided that the experiments would not be permitted. The security officer at the facility was in constant opposition to security experiments, and would not even read any proposals. This is particularly interesting in light of the fact that it was offered to allow systems programmers and security officers to observe and oversee all aspects of all experiments. In addition, systems administrators were unwilling to allow sanitized versions of log tapes to be used to perform offline analysis of the potential threat of viruses, and were unwilling to have additional traces added to their systems by their programmers to help detect viral attacks. Although there is no apparent threat posed by these activities, and they require little time, money, and effort, administrators were unwilling to allow investigations. It appears that their reaction was the same as the fear reaction of the Unix administrators.
In March of 1984, negotiations began over the performance of experiments on a Bell-LaPadula [Bell73] based system implemented on a Univac 1108. The experiment was agreed upon in principal in a matter of hours, but took several months to become solidified. In July of 1984, a two week period was arranged for experimentation. The purpose of this experiment was merely to demonstrate the feasibility of a virus on a Bell-LaPadula based system by implementing a prototype.
Because of the extremely limited time allowed for development (26 hours of computer usage by a user who had never used an 1108, with the assistance of a programmer who hadn't used an 1108 in 5 years), many issues were ignored in the implementation. In particular, performance and generality of the attack were completely ignored. As a result, each infection took about 20 seconds, even though they could easily have been done in under a second. Traces of the virus were left on the system although they could have been eliminated to a large degree with little effort. Rather than infecting many files at once, only one file at a time was infected. This allowed the progress of a virus to be demonstrated very clearly without involving a large number of users or programs. As a security precaution, the system was used in a dedicated mode with only a system disk, one terminal, one printer, and accounts dedicated to the experiment.
After 18 hours of connect time, the 1108 virus performed its first infection. The host provided a fairly complete set of user manuals, use of the system, and the assistance of a competent past user of the system. After 26 hours of use, the virus was demonstrated to a group of about 10 people including administrators, programmers, and security officers. The virus demonstrated the ability to cross user boundaries and move from a given security level to a higher security level. Again it should be emphasized that no system bugs were involved in this activity, but rather that the Bell-LaPadula model allows this sort of activity to legitimately take place.
All in all, the attack was not difficult to perform. The code for the virus consisted of 5 lines of assembly code, about 200 lines of Fortran code, and about 50 lines of command files. It is estimated that a competent systems programmer could write a much better virus for this system in under 2 weeks. In addition, once the nature of a viral attack is understood, developing a specific attack is not difficult. Each of the programmers present was convinced that they could have built a better virus in the same amount of time. (This is believable since this attacker had no previous 1108 experience.)
In early August of 1984, permission was granted to instrument a VAX Unix system to measure sharing and analyze viral spreading. Data at this time is quite limited, but several trends have appeared. The degree of sharing appears to vary greatly between systems, and many systems may have to be instrumented before these deviations are well understood. A small number of users appear to account for the vast majority of sharing, and a virus could be greatly slowed by protecting them. The protection of a few 'social' individuals might also slow biological diseases. The instrumentation was conservative in the sense that infection could happen without the instrumentation picking it up, so estimated attack times are unrealistically slow.
As a result of the instrumentation of these systems, a set of 'social' users were identified. Several of these surprised the main systems administrator. The number of systems administrators was quite high, and if any of them were infected, the entire system would likely fall within an hour. Some simple procedural changes were suggested to slow this attack by several orders of magnitude without reducing functionality.
Summary of Spreading system 1 system 2 class| ## |spread| time | class| ## |spread| time | ---------------------------- ---------------------------- | S | 3 | 22 | 0 | | S | 5 | 160 | 1 | | A | 1 | 1 | 0 | | A | 7 | 78 | 120 | | U | 4 | 5 | 18 | | U | 7 | 24 | 600 |
Two systems are shown, with three classes of users (S for system, A for system administrator, and U for normal user). '##' indicates the number of users in each category, 'spread' is the average number of users a virus would spread to, and 'time' is the average time taken to spread them once they logged in, rounded up to the nearest minute. Average times are misleading because once an infection has reaches the 'root' account on Unix, all access is granted. Taking this into account leads to takeover times on the order of one minute which is so fast that infection time becomes a limiting factor in how quickly infections can spread. This coincides with previous experimental results using an actual virus.
Users who were not shared with are ignored in these calculations, but other experiments indicate that any user can get shared with by offering a program on the system bulletin board. Detailed analysis demonstrated that systems administrators tend to try these programs as soon as they are announced. This allows normal users to infect system files within minutes. Administrators used their accounts for running other users' programs and storing commonly executed system files, and several normal users owned very commonly used files. These conditions make viral attack very quick. The use of seperate accounts for systems administrators during normal use was immediately suggested, and the systematic movement (after verification) of commonly used programs into the system domain was also considered.
Similar experiments have since been performed on a variety of systems to demonstrate feasibility and determine the ease of implementing a virus on many systems. Simple viruses have been written for VAX VMS and VAX Unix in the respective command languages, and neither program required more than 10 lines of command language to implement. The Unix virus is independent of the computer on which it is implemented, and is therefore able to run under IDRIS, VENIX, and a host of other UNIX based operating systems on a wide variety of systems. A virus written in Basic has been implemented in under 100 lines for the Radio Shack TRS-80, the IBM PC, and several other machines with extended Basic capabilities. Although this is a source level virus and could be detected fairly easily by the originator of any given program, it is rare that a working program is examined by its creator after it is in operation. In all of these cases, the viruses have been written so that the traces in the respective operating systems would be incapable of determining the source of the virus even if the virus itself had been detected. Since the UNIX and Basic virus could spread through a heterogeneous network so easily, they are seen as quite dangerous.
As of this time, we have been unable to attain permission to either instrument or experiment on any of the systems that these viruses were written for. The results attained for these systems are based on very simple examples and may not reflect their overall behavior on systems in normal use.
The following table summarizes the results of the experiments to date. The three systems are across the horizontal axis (Unix, Bell-LaPadula, and Instrumentation), while the vertical axis indicates the measure of performance (time to program, infection time, number of lines of code, number of experiments performed, minimum time to takeover, average time to takeover, and maximum time to takeover) where time to takeover indicates that all privilages would be granted to the attacker within that delay from introducing the virus.
Summary of Attacks | Unix-C| B-L | Instr |Unix-sh| VMS | Basic | ------------------------------------------------- Time | 8 hrs |18 hrs | N/A | 15min | 30min | 4 hrs | ------------------------------------------------- Inf t |.5 sec |20 sec | N/A | 2 sec | 2 sec | 10 sec| ------------------------------------------------- Code | 200 l | 260 l | N/A | 7 l | 9 l | 100 l | ------------------------------------------------- Trials | 5 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | ------------------------------------------------- Min t | 5 min | N/A |30 sec | N/A | N/A | N/A | ------------------------------------------------- Avg t |30 min | N/A |30 min | N/A | N/A | N/A | ------------------------------------------------- Max t |60 min | N/A |48 hrs | N/A | N/A | N/A | -------------------------------------------------
Viral attacks appear to be easy to develop in a very short time, can be designed to leave few if any traces in most current systems, are effective against modern security policies for multilevel usage, and require only minimal expertise to implement. Their potential threat is severe, and they can spread very quickly through a computer system. It appears that they can spread through computer networks in the same way as they spread through computers, and thus present a widespread and fairly immediate threat to many current systems.
The problems with policies that prevent controlled security experiments are clear; denying users the ability to continue their work promotes illicit attacks; and if one user can launch an attack without using system bugs or special knowledge, other users will also be able to. By simply telling users not to launch attacks, little is accomplished; users who can be trusted will not launch attacks; but users who would do damage cannot be trusted, so only legitimate work is blocked. The perspective that every attack allowed to take place reduces security is in the author's opinion a fallacy. The idea of using attacks to learn of problems is even required by government policies for trusted systems [Klein83] [Kaplan82]. It would be more rational to use open and controlled experiments as a resource to improve security.