Chapter 3

Urban Case Studies

3.1 Introduction

This chapter begins with a socio-economic profile of Cork City. It serves to locate young people living in Cork City in their social context. A short description of the nature of youth work provision in Cork City with its mainstream and special components is outlined. Case studies of Bishopstown and Ballyphehane highlight the issues relevant to urban youth work. These issues are further discussed in the context of other research studies in the final section of this chapter.

3.2 Cork City

The following studies have been used to develop a profile of the City of Cork.

• The Northside Study (1990-1991)
• Review of the Land Use and Transportation Study (1990-1991)
• Cork City Development Plan (1990-1992)
• North Lee Development Limited Area Action Plan (1992-1994)
• Leda Assessment Report: Cork.

Much of the information presented has been compiled from these studies.

3.2.1 Background

Cork is the second largest city in the Republic of Ireland and is a major regional centre for commerce, industry, culture and education. The greater Cork area has a population of 231,000 of which 127,000 are within the administrative area of Cork Corporation (Cork County Borough).

Since the mid 1970s, the Cork area has incurred major losses in manufacturing, particularly in traditional industries. The consequence of this has been the loss of employment opportunities in manual occupations. Since the end of the 1980s, Cork and its surroundings has experienced an explosion in the level of unemployment which in some areas has reached a level of 50%. The rise in the greater City area unemployment rate from 5% in 1971 to approximately 22.8% in 1994 has been a major contributory factor to the increased extent and severity of many social problems.

3.2.2 Concentration of Disadvantage

The most acute social and economic problems in Cork are found in the local authority housing areas built over the past 25 years. For the most part unemployment is concentrated on the northside and on a small geographical scale in the southside districts of Togher and Mahon. The northside is an area of 5.9 square miles and consists of that part of Cork County Borough located north of the River Lee. The areas covered include Blackpool, Churchfield, Gurranebraher, Shandon, Mayfield, Montenotte, The Glen, Ballyvolane, Fairhill, Hollyhill, Shanakiel and Knocknaheeny. Togher and Mahon, located south of the River Lee, exhibit similar characteristics to the northside.

3.2.3 Profile of Disadvantaged Areas

Cork Corporation undertook the Northside Study in 1990 to investigate the extent of disadvantage on the northside. The characteristics of this area and the indicators of disadvantage can also be applied to disadvantaged areas in the southside - Togher and Mahon.

The northside had 44% of the city's population (55,624) in 1991. 45% of this figure was under 25 at the time of the 1991 census, suggesting that there will be little fall off in the labour force or household formation until the early part of the next century. Disadvantage is concentrated in areas where the local authority housing is located. People who qualify for such housing have low incomes. Areas where there is a concentration of local authority housing are characterised by a high density of people with limited resources.

It has been estimated that 80% of Cork Corporation's tenants rely on social welfare payments. There are strong correlations between high unemployment, areas of local authority housing and the predominance of manual skills among the workforce in these areas. It has already been established that those with manual skills were hardest hit by rising unemployment during the 1980s.

3.2.4 Unemployment

In 1986, 28% of the labour force on the northside was unemployed, compared to 23% in the city as a whole. Within the northside wards where local authority housing predominated, the rate averaged 35% in 1986. The equivalent figure for Togher was 28% and Mahon 38%. Unemployment, particularly long-term unemployment, results in other types of disadvantage which are less easy to measure statistically. Individuals and families can become trapped in a cycle of deprivation and poverty which continues on in the next generation.

A 1991 survey carried out by the Southern Health Board of 6,500 households centred on an area in the northwestern sector of the city found evidence of high levels of poor health particularly among the families of the unemployed. This manifested in the following key indicators - early mortality, more frequent hospitalisation, drug dependency and drug overdose.

3.2.5 Other Indicators of Disadvantage

1. HOUSEHOLDS OUTSIDE THE LABOURFORCE: The numbers of single parent families and persons unable to work due to disability are higher for the northside and for local authority areas than the average for Cork County Borough.
2. INCOMES: The average income of local authority tenants was estimated in a 1987 Household Budget Survey to be 38% below the average income for urban areas. The average unemployed person's income was reckoned to be 37% below the urban area average.
3. IMBALANCE OF DEVELOPMENT: Many major public service investments have been located on the southside of Cork City - Cork University Hospital, the Regional Technical College, the IDA Technology Park, FÁS Headquarters and the ESB Headquarters. These developments have created a positive image in these localities.
4. EARLY SCHOOL LEAVING AND EDUCATIONAL DISADVANTAGE: The proportion of the total population who finished school at aged 15 or under is significantly higher on the northside particularly within the local authority belt. This seriously affects employment prospects.

3.2.6 Mainstream Youth Work

The youth service in Cork provides a wide range of services for the leisure time, education and recreation of young people. Provision has been shaped mainly by a youth work philosophy rooted in volunteerism.

3.2.7 Special Youth Work with Disadvantaged Young People

In 1982, the City of Cork VEC requested its Youth and Sport Sub-Committee to conduct a survey in a number of areas of the City to determine the extent and nature of existing services for young people and to make recommendations for their improvement. The results of the survey indicated a need to cater for young people who were less advantaged and the Youth and Sport Sub-Committee subsequently recommended the establishment of a drop-in youth centre in the Knocknaheeny/ Hollyhill area to cater particularly for early school leavers and young people at risk. The management of this project was undertaken by Ógra Chorcaí and the Strawberry Hill Youth Development Centre opened in April 1984. A Youth Development Centre opened in Togher in December 1994.

Other projects followed in the late 1980s - The Glen (February 1988): Mahon (February 1988), Farranree (September 1988), and Churchfield/Gurranebraher (September 1988). Outreach workers were subsequently appointed to complement the work of some of these centres, Togher (September 1988) and Knocknaheeny/Hollyhill (January 1989). Foróige manage the projects in The Glen and Mahon and Cork Youth Federation manage the project in Churchfield/Gurranebraher. STEP (Support Training and Enterprise programme) was established by the YMCA in September 1988 to cater for 18-25 year olds who have limited educational qualifications and are unemployed. A Mothers Alone Project is provided by the same organisation to support young mothers. A number of summer recreation schemes cater for young people in the 5-14 age group who live in disadvantaged areas. Other projects which cater for disadvantaged young people in Cork City include the Youth Encounter Project and two Neighbourhood Youth Projects in The Glen and in Mayfield.

A Research Project commissioned by the City of Cork VEC was carried out to evaluate the effectiveness of the special projects under their aegis in 1989. Area based research projects have also been conducted, most recently in Bishopstown and Ballyphehane to evaluate the needs of young people in these two areas.

These research projects were completed in October 1994. The areas Bishopstown and Ballyphehane are the focus of the next section of this chapter. These have been included for the purpose of highlighting the issues relevant to youth work in urban settings.

3.3 Bishopstown

3.3.1 Location

The Bishopstown area of Cork City lies to the West of the city centre. The area is comprised of the following administrative wards.

• Bishopstown A
• Bishopstown B
• Bishopstown C
• Bishopstown D
• Bishopstown E.

In Bishopstown there is a concentration of private housing. However Cork Corporation introduced a series of eight housing schemes beginning in 1981 and culminating in 1989 when 455 houses were built.

While Bishopstown could generally be described as a middle class affluent community, there are pockets of disadvantage and areas of very high social need within the community. The Local Authority housing estates that were built in the 1980s have very few facilities. This is indicative of the oversight that family life in new housing is not in need of support or surrounding amenities.

The reality for families who moved to the area in the 1980s was that they faced many difficulties, particularly in relation to their children:

• Many families experienced considerable difficulty when it came to placing their children in local post-primary schools due to the shortage of school places.
• Families who were forced to place their children in schools elsewhere in Cork City very often placed them in the areas from which they had moved so they tended to continue to socialise in their original communities.
• The adjustment to life in Bishopstown was further aggravated by problems of adapting to a community of people who were settled and who were comprised mainly of middle income families. The lack of opportunities created for informal mixing led to isolation and social distinction.
• Further difficulties stemmed from the lack of support systems for families who through relocating were no longer near their extended families and friends on whom they relied for support.

3.3.2 Housing

There are approximately 4000 houses in Bishopstown of which 455 are public. With the exception of the 11 additional houses being built on behalf of Cork Corporation in Rossa Avenue, there are no other immediate plans for further provision of public housing in Bishopstown, so the existing proportion of public to private housing will be largely maintained.

3.3.3 Population

Table 2 - Combined Ward Population Figures 1991 - Bishopstown

Source: 1991 Census

In 1995 there will be approximately 1,821 persons in the 4-13 age group and 3,154 persons over the age of 4 and under the age of 19 in Bishopstown.

3.3.4 Unemployment

Official unemployment for Bishopstown was 11% in 1986 with young males aged 15-24 having an unemployment rate of 19.3% and young females (15-24) 12%.

3.3.5 Sources of Household Income

In Bishopstown there are at least 187 children in households which depend on social welfare payments as the main source of income.

Of the 187 children, there are at least 33 children living in households dependent on lone parent payments as the main source of income.

3.3.6 Community and Youth Groups

In addition to the statutory and voluntary services available to young people in Bishopstown, the following community and youth groups were active at the time the research was carried out:

BISHOPSTOWN COMMUNITY ASSOCIATION

3.3.7 Research Findings

BISHOPSTOWN - A DISADVANTAGED AREA?

The profile of Bishopstown that emerged from the study is of a middle class community with pockets of disadvantage and high social need.

• Local authority housing estates were built in the 1980s and they have very few facilities.
• There are at least 187 children in households which depend on social welfare payments as the main source of income.
• Of these 187 children, 33 are in households which depend on lone parent payments as the main source of income.
• In April 1994 there were 42 Travelling children living in a halting site on the Carrigrohane Road, none of whom were receiving second level education. Nobody on the site had paid work.
• In a class of 31 pupils in one primary school, 20 received assistance with school books.

FACILITIES

• Families who reside in the local authority houses have in the past and continue to experience difficulties living in a community in which the facilities and services are primarily aimed at meeting the needs of students, young workers and middle income families residing in the area.
• The lack of basic facilities like a health centre and a community centre as well as the absence of a library and a swimming pool have a negative impact on the life of the community. Low income families and teenagers are more confined to their locality for their recreational outlets.
• While the quality of local authority housing in Bishopstown is very good and not a source of dissatisfaction, residents are critical of the lack of designated play and recreation areas (while alleys between houses and open spaces have not been used to good effect).
• Bishopstown lacks a clear focal point for both economic and social activity.
• There is a lack of commitment to bring people together in formal and informal ways. Bishopstown House and Wilton Park House (centres for Community activity) are located on the periphery and this tends to polarise the community in many respects.
• There is an impressive development of clubs in the area particularly sporting clubs which rely considerably on local voluntary effort.
• Curraheen Family Centre is a remarkable example of self-help in Bishopstown whereby people have come together first informally and then formally to find ways to meet their needs in a collective manner.

YOUNG PEOPLE IN BISHOPSTOWN

• While the size of the young population in Bishopstown is decreasing, in comparison to other areas it is very large. In 1995 there are approximately 1,821 persons in the 4-13 age group and 3,154 persons over the age of 4 and under the age of 19 in Bishopstown.
• As in other areas, there are different categories of young people in Bishopstown. There are the young who will participate in sporting and other uniformed activities when provided. There are also young people who are not sports orientated and who are not predisposed to uniformed groups. A third category of young people are unattached in the sense that they would be reluctant to participate if programmes and activities were provided. There is also a section of young people in this group who would appear isolated in the community who would be by-passed by existing services and who would be identified as being "at risk" because of their involvement in behaviours defined as deviant.
• There is no single satisfactory approach to the needs of young people and there is not a wide enough range or diversity of activities in Bishopstown. This means that large groups of young people are not being catered for.

EDUCATION AND YOUNG PEOPLE IN BISHOPSTOWN

• Through the years the shortage of first year second level places for boys has been the cause of some resentment and divisiveness in the area. Pupils of Scoil Columbain experienced difficulty in securing second level places. 1994 was the first year that all the pupils of Scoil Columbain were placed in schools of their first choice.
• The shortage of post-primary places and early school leaving (which is higher one suspects for those attending schools outside of the area) mainly affected low income families in the area.
• There is evidence which suggests that the lack of formal co-ordination among the relevant authorities (Schools, FÁS, Social Services) is militating against the delivery of an effective service to school leavers who are cumulatively disadvantaged.
• The policy of some schools to register pupils on a yearly basis at a cost was viewed negatively by the mothers interviewed because of what they perceived as the high costs involved and because it served them with a timely reminder that there is a yearly rather than a continuous commitment on the schools' part to the education of their children. The expense of books and uniforms for low income families was also highlighted.
• The falling number of pupils in the area might mean that in the future there could be competition between schools to attract pupils from outside areas, while the educational needs of many young people in Bishopstown might not be adequately met.
• While Bishopstown is not a disadvantaged area, there is evidence of disadvantage within the area and in the schools. It is clear that for disadvantaged young people in Bishopstown, intervention strategies in education will not reach them if an area based approach is not further refined to meet needs outside of those delineated within specific area boundaries.

YOUNG PEOPLE IN THE TRAVELLING COMMUNITY

• Children of Travelling families are withdrawing from the education system after they have completed their primary schooling in Bishopstown.
• In April 1994 there were 42 Travelling Children living on the halting site located on the Carrigrohane road.
• Nobody on the site had paid employment in April 1994.

YOUTH WORK AND A FEMALE AGENDA

• In Bishopstown as in other areas there exists a caring and liberal approach to young people's needs alongside a persistent concern about troublesome youth with destructive energies in need of control. Although services for youth are now viewed as more socially purposeful the degree to which the youth service has moved on from a custodial type of provision has to be questioned in view of the absence of a "female agenda" in youth work. The assumption that the needs of boys are greater or that the needs of boys and girls are essentially the same, still prevails.

3.4 Ballyphehane

Ballyphehane/Baile-Feathain is located on the southside of Cork City. Up until the late 1940s this area was occupied by a community of people who made intensive farming their livelihood.

However, to alleviate the dual problem of a population increase and a housing shortage, Ballyphehane was chosen to site a number of Cork Corporation major housing schemes. The local authority houses that were built in the next few decades were occupied by people who came from other parts bringing their own culture and traditions. These people formed the core of a new community. They focused their energies in the same direction to develop their community in a way that overcame personal and political division. This was made possible because people shared the same social status and the clergy of the parish played a crucial role in bringing people together in a meaningful way. The strong sense of community fostered is evident in the development of structures and facilities for the common good - the Church of the Assumption, the Community Centre and the Credit Union.

The involvement of the people of Ballyphehane in the planning process is apparent in the presence of commercial and social facilities which are clustered together in prime locations.

The manner in which Ballyphehane is laid out is viewed in positive terms. The quality of the housing is good and the wide roads and landscaping are very attractive features. The excellently maintained homes and gardens are indicative of the strong sense of pride felt by the people in the area. Between 1948 and 1993, a total of 11 housing schemes totalling 1,316 dwellings were built by Cork Corporation in the Ballyphehane area. The schemes are considered to have been very successful in view of the way the locality has developed.

3.4.1 Population

Table 3 - Combined Ward Population Figures 1991 - Ballyphehane

Because many of the local authority houses were built in the 1950s, the demographic implications are that there is a high elderly/retired population residing in Ballyphehane. Nevertheless there are approximately 1,209 persons in Ballyphehane over the age of 4 and under the age of 19 in 1995.

3.4.2 Unemployment

The only figures available for unemployment in Ballyphehane are from the 1986 census. Official unemployment for Ballyphehane stood at 26.4% in 1986. At this stage young males (15-24) had an unemployment rate of 60% and young females 35%.

3.4.3 Sources of Household Income

A Cork Corporation Rent investigation in 1994 revealed that there are at least 163 children in houses dependent on social welfare payments as the main source of income. Of these 163 children, 55 live in households which depend on lone parents payments and maintenance as the main sources of income.

3.4.4 Community and Youth Groups

In addition to the statutory and voluntary agencies providing services in or to the Ballyphehane community, the following community groups have been identified in the area:

BALLYPHEHANE COMMUNITY ASSOCIATION

3.4.5 Research Findings

The profile of Ballyphehane that emerged in this study is of a working class community with a strong tradition in community development.

BALLYPHEHANE - A DISADVANTAGED COMMUNITY?

• There is evidence of poverty and disadvantage in the Ballyphehane community.
• The most recent figures for unemployment in the area (1986 census) show that in 1986, official unemployment stood at 26.4% with young males aged 15-24 having an unemployment rate as high as 60% and young females in the same age group 35%.
• Cork Corporation statistics reveal that there are at least 163 children in households in which the main sources of income are social welfare payments. Of these 163 children, 55 live in households which depend on lone parents payments and maintenance as the main source of income.
• The effects of poverty, low income and unemployment on pupils educational experiences were recurring themes and in one local primary school it was reported that 'many pupils are included in the book and uniform lending scheme'.

FACILITIES

While there is widespread satisfaction with the layout of the Ballyphehane area and the facilities available, the lack of playing pitches was highlighted by members of the community, particularly those involved in sporting organisations. This is generally viewed as the greatest fault in the planning of the area.

The greatest difficulty facing the Community Association at present is the ongoing cost of maintaining the community centre. A caretaker is employed full-time and insurance and security costs are very high. This has put the association in the unenviable position of demanding payment from clubs and groups with little funds who use the centre. This has been the cause of some resentment and divisiveness in the area. It places the association in the uncomfortable position of constantly looking at the needs of the community in the context of the finance required to run the centre. If this problem is allowed to continue it would mean that certain groups/clubs without sufficient resources may feel excluded and marginalised in the community. This problem might also explain why the use of the centre is not distributed evenly across all the age groups.

MAINSTREAM YOUTH WORK

In Ballyphehane mainstream youth work lacks recognition, is totally unresourced and underdeveloped. The recurring themes are inadequate financial resources, the problem of recruiting and maintaining voluntary leaders and securing premises as well as the lack of recognition for "out of school" educational initiatives. These problems have been cited as the most important contributory factors to the following happening.

• A poor diet of activities and opportunities on offer
• The premature burnout of leaders and the disenchantment of club members
• The end of the club/group when some or all of the above obstacles appear unsurmountable.

The non-existence of female members in the Ballyphehane Youth and Sports Club and the strong concern about teenage boys with destructive energies in need of control in the Ballyphehane community would suggest that youth needs are largely being defined in terms of the needs of teenage boys. In the light of this, the degree to which the youth service has moved on from a custodial type provision has to be questioned in view of the absence of a female agenda in youth work.

YOUNG PEOPLE IN BALLYPHEHANE

• Ballyphehane is a densely populated settled community with a large elderly population. However, in 1995 there are approximately 1,209 persons in Ballyphehane over the age of 4 and under the age of 19.
• In 1992 a fire started by a small group of young people damaged part of the community centre and this had many repercussions. There is mixed reaction as to whether this arson was deliberate or accidental, a senseless crime or an angry response to a community which is not showing sufficient interest in its young people. The burning of the centre damaged morale in the community particularly the relations between young and old.
• In Ballyphehane community there is a concentration of elderly people so it is more difficult to keep in sight the needs of young people and generational differences are more pronounced. This means that it is more difficult to sustain a positive orientation towards young people, viewing them as a resource rather than a problem within the community.
• Young people in Ballyphehane are not a homogeneous group. Ballyphehane like other areas has its 'different kinds' of young people. There are the young who will participate in sporting and uniformed activities when provided. Some young people are not sports orientated or are not predisposed to uniformed groups. There are young people who are 'unattached' in the sense that they are reluctant to participate if programmes and activities are being provided. There are also young people who appear isolated, who have been rejected by the community, who are bypassed by existing services and who are labelled as being "at risk" because of their involvement in behaviours defined as deviant.

EDUCATION AND YOUNG PEOPLE IN BALLYPHEHANE

• The lack of a support and advisory service to schools was highlighted in the study. It was felt that a support team including professionals such as psychologists and social workers should be available to schools and families when needed.
• At the time the research was carried out the criteria of eligibility for the Vocational Training and Opportunities Scheme appeared to discriminate against certain disadvantaged groups. Not more than 10% of places on the scheme could be filled by persons in the following categories:
  • Persons receiving Social Welfare payments or signing for credits for at least 6 months.
  • Lone parents receiving lone parents allowances for at least 6 months.
  • Spouses for whom adult dependent allowances are being paid for a least 6 months as part of means tested unemployment payments.
  • Disabled persons in receipt of Disabled Persons Maintenance Allowance and their spouses for whom adult-dependent allowances under the scheme are being paid.
• The Youth Encounter Project and Youthreach in Dean Street have in the past accepted and continue to accept young people from Ballyphehane who experience disaffection with mainstream education. It would also appear that in the absence of effective co-ordination between the relevant authorities (FÁS, Social Services, Cork Corporation and schools) a satisfactory service is not being provided to school leavers who are cumulatively disadvantaged.
• Through becoming a College of Adult and Continuing Education. Coláiste Stiofáin Naofa is no longer a resource for young people in Ballyphehane. By virtue of the fact that it is now attended by adults from all parts of the city its identity as a 'Ballyphehane School' is not as tenable.

3.5 Urban Youth Work

In recent years a number of studies have been conducted in different areas of Cork City which highlight a number of issues which deserve consideration in terms of the development of youth work in the city area.

3.5.1 The Youth Population

In the evaluation of "Youthlinks" located in the Churchfield/Gurranebraher area, the researcher noted that the findings of the ESRI report of 1982 are not totally removed from that area when they depict - "Adolescents in crowded houses, lacking in space and privacy, living in densely populated areas with a high proportion of children, inadequate recreational facilities and poor equipment...with considerable disadvantage and a lack of socially approved outlets for energies."

In 1991, the report on Mahon youth provision stated that 'Mahon has a high young population with 55% under 25.

In the study of Bishopstown outlined in this report there are approximately 4,975 persons in the 4-19 age group. Many city areas have high populations of young people. There are other areas - Ballyphehane, with a population structure which is imbalanced (a high proportion of elderly people) and this also has negative implications for the lives of these young people.

3.5.2 Urban Disadvantage

In the evaluation of "Youthlinks" it was stated that 'the most obvious social characteristic is the high rate of unemployment, both adult and youth, which is as high as 85% in some pockets.'

The study of Mahon Youth provision reported:

Unemployment and low income then, are prominent features of life in Mahon and are significant factors, when it comes to examining various aspects of social development in the area.

The study of Ballyphehane youth provision indicated that'young people in Ballyphehane are severely disadvantaged in the labour market. In the same study, a Cork Corporation rent investigation revealed that there were 163 children in 66 households dependent on social welfare payments as the main source of income. Similarly in the Bishopstown study there were at least 187 children in households dependent on Social Welfare payments as the main source of income. One could conclude that disadvantage is very widespread and severe in many urban areas where there is a significant number of unemployed and families in poverty.

3.5.3 Young People at Risk

The identification of a significant proportion of young people 'at risk' has been documented in all the studies already mentioned. Although the term 'at risk' covers a range of problems, the following problems have received most attention; unemployment, young offending, truanting, early school leaving, under-age drinking and drug abuse. These problems have considerable implications for the practice of youth work in urban areas.

3.5.4 The Social Context of Youth Work Practice in Cork City

There are areas in Cork City which suffer from a concentration and a multiplicity of social problems and these have particular implications for the lives of young people. It is generally accepted that knowledge of the social context of young peoples lives is necessary to achieve an understanding of the issues confronting young people.

Voluntary Youth Organisations and communities have in the past responded to and continue to respond to the needs of young people at local level. However, there are factors which prevent the development of a comprehensive response. These problems include funding, the lack of recognition of youth work and the problems linked to volunteerism and insurance. The lack of facilities and premises is a problem which is particularly acute in urban areas. These issues are further discussed in a subsequent chapter.

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