An Introduction to Species Counterpoint
| figure 1 | figure 1a |
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COUNTERPOINT may be briefly defined as the art of combining melodies. Consider a vocal arrangement in which a lower melody is harmonized by one a third higher (figure 1)
- such an arrangement of the voices could be regarded as counterpoint, but there is little or no independence between the parts; for example there is no dissonance between the voices, and both rise and fall together, just at different pitches. However, the arrangement in figure 1a demonstrates much greater independence between its two voices, with movement in one part while the other halts, divergence in the melodic direction of the parts, and with at least some occurrence of dissonance. In a longer melody the voices could peak at different times - this would also emphasize their independence.
Clearly, there are several well-known techniques we can use to manipulate the relationship between the melodies; in the following introduction to counterpoint we will look at an historically important method of examining the use of dissonance, rhythm, and melodic direction in composing music.
J.J.Fux's Gradus Ad Parnassum is the classic text dealing with species counterpoint and fugue; it presents a set of rules for writing in the style of 16th century vocal composition (i.e. Palestrina style). Species counterpoint is dealt with in the first part of the book, where Fux defines five species, each of which is concerned with combining two or more voices subject to a well-defined set of rhythmic and harmonic constraints. For two part exercises, the student is required to invent a melody above or below a cantus firmus (CF); the CF is a fixed, given melody which uses only semibreves (whole notes).
| Fux provided a cantus firmus in six of the ecclesiastical modes: |
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| Dorian |  |
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| Phrygian |  |
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| Lydian |  |
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| Mixolydian |  |
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| Aeolian |  |
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| Ionian |  |
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This tutorial offers a synopsis of Fux's rules relating to two-part exercises in the five species, though only in the case where the melody invented by the reader begins and ends as the upper voice.
There are several rules governing melodic movement in the counterpoint; these are common to all five species. The main purpose of these rules is to prevent any sequence of notes which may be difficult to sing (or more precisely, to try to prevent a succession of notes which would have been difficult or unstylistic for 16th century singers). These melodic constraints state that:
- Augmented or diminished intervals between succeeding notes are not allowed.
- Leaps greater than an octave, or leaps of a major sixth or a seventh are prohibited.
- An ascending leap of a minor sixth or an octave must be followed by a step back down within the compass of the leap (figure 2). In the same way, a descending leap of an octave must be followed by a step back up within the compass of the leap.
- A descending leap of a minor sixth is prohibited.
- A sequence of notes forming an 'exposed' tritone is prohibited (figure 3).
- Accidentals should generally be avoided since they are not in the character of the ecclesiastical modes. However, the penultimate bar in each species requires a specific sequence which may demand the use of a sharp.
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| figure 2 |
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| melodic direction reverses after the leap |
| figure 3 |
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| this diminished fifth from B to F is 'exposed' |
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There are also some general rules governing the combination of the two parts; these rules are common to all five species.
- Perfect consonant intervals are unisons, fifths, and octaves.
- Imperfect consonant intervals are thirds and sixths.
- Seconds, fourths, sevenths, and all augmented and diminished intervals are dissonances.
Movement from one interval to the next is governed by the following rules:
- When the two voices move in the same direction, such movement is called 'direct' by Fux, 'similar', or 'parallel' motion by others.
- When the two voices move in different directions Fux calls it 'contrary' motion, others use the term 'opposite'.
- If one voice stays on the same note while the other moves, the movement is called 'oblique' motion.
- The two parts may not move in direct motion to a perfect consonance.
| figure 4 |
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First Species
In addition to the general rules listed above, the rules specific to the first species are:
- The counterpoint consists of a single semibreve against each note of the cantus firmus.
- No dissonances are allowed.
- In the penultimate bar the counterpoint must be a major sixth above the cantus firmus. This requires an accidental in the Dorian, Mixolydian, and Aeolian modes.
- In the final bar the counterpoint must be an octave above the cantus firmus.
- Unisons are not allowed, except in the first bar.
- The counterpoint in the first bar must be an octave or a fifth above the cantus firmus, or a unison.
An example from Gradus
Points to note in this example:
- In the penultimate bar the C has been sharpened in order to form the required major sixth.
- All three types of motion have been used
How to use the applet
Click in the bar in which you want to place a note. A semibreve (whole note) will appear on the line or space which the mouse points at. The note may be replaced by simply clicking in the same bar, or moved up or down by dragging it. Measures which are not visible initially may be scrolled to by using the scroll bar under the staves. A note may be preceeded by an accidental by selecting one of the buttons labelled 'Sharp' or 'Flat', and then entering the note as just explained. When the counterpoint is complete (that is, there is a note in every bar), the counterpoint may be checked for conformance to the rules for first species by pressing the 'Check Answer' button; this results in a list of comments appearing in the text area below the buttons (the comments generally identify exceptions to the rules). A completed exercise may be played back by pressing the 'Play' button. A different mode may be selected by choosing from the 'Select a mode' choice box.
Links to the book titles underlined below are on the Links page.
Most of the English translation by Alfred Mann of Gradus Ad Parnassum has been published by Norton in The Study of Counterpoint and The Study of Fugue.
Other noteworthy texts on counterpoint include:
- Arnold Schoenberg's Preliminary Exercises in Counterpoint (Faber & Faber Ltd)
- Counterpoint, by Gordon Jacob; Part Two from Harmony, Counterpoint & Improvisation Book 1, editor Sir George Dyson (Novello)
- Counterpoint by Knud Jeppesen, trans. Glen Haydon (Prentice-Hall Inc.)
Each of these texts differs to a greater or lesser degree from Gradus in its choice and/or implementation of the rules; that is, the other texts have more rules, or less, or variations on the same rules.
The part of Gradus Ad Parnassum which deals with fugue is in The Study of Fugue . Fux wrote that this was the most important part of his book.
Composers who have been familiar with Gradus Ad Parnassum include J.S. Bach, who is known to have read the book and praised it; Haydn studied it meticulously for his own training in composition; Leopold Mozart used it for his son's early composition lessons, and Beethoven made a condensed version with annotations, which he used when teaching his students. More recently Richard Strauss and Paul Hindemith used it when teaching. It should be clear that this method is well tested, and provides some useful insights into fundamental aspects of composition.