Theories on Visual Thinking

Researchers such as Gardner[1], Spearman[2] and Thurstone[3] have undertaken considerable work to illustrate the factorial nature of human intelligence. The ability to form and manipulate visual or spatial images is recognised as a key cognitive capacity. In a number of studies, there are references to activities that relate to a capacity to manipulate mental images, particularly as a problem-solving strategy. Gardner’s categorisation of ‘spatial intelligence’ is one of the more well know but it is by no means the first. Kelley (1928)[4], El Koussy (1935)[5], Thurnstone (1938)[6] and French (1951)[7] each make reference to the ability to use mental images productively. The term ‘visual thinking’ is evident in the work of researchers on problem solving and design. Visual thinking is closely linked to the work of Rudolf Arnheim. Setting his work primarily in the area of Art Education, Arnheim asserts that ‘thinking calls for images, and images contain thought’.[8] Furthermore, the use of graphics and other forms of representation are seen as important tools in thinking and learning. The use of graphical systems in collaboration with visual thinking processes facilitates the representation of concepts and artefacts. Graphical representations may be in the form of freehand diagrams, formal representations (orthographic projection, isometric projection, etc.), charts, schematics and three-dimensional models. These representations serve a number of purposes.

• Graphical representations are used to convey information that cannot easily be communicated in a verbal, non-visual manner. The representation facilitates the formation of a visual image corresponding to the original concepts depicted graphically.
• The production of graphical representations can aid the processes of thinking and problem solving through the generation and manipulation of imagery. McKim uses the term ‘graphic ideation’ to describe such activity.[9]
• Tasks that are premised on graphical representations can be developed. That engage, and perhaps enhance, visual thinking skills.

Thus, a case can be made for introducing students to a range of technologies that facilitate visual thinking and communication. In particular, students engaged in learning in the areas of design & technology education will find such activities central to many learning activities that they are likely to experience.

Scenario: An Example from Senior Cycle Engineering

A school receives an invitation to attend a briefing meeting for a forthcoming science and technology exhibition. A number of teachers outline the nature of the exhibition to their students. A group of Senior Cycle Engineering students express interest and they attend the briefing. Following the briefing, their teacher agrees to act as mentor, which will involve guiding the preparation of the project for submission to the exhibition. Broad areas of interest are discussed over a number of days and the matter of conditions in a local nursing home for elderly patients is raised. The students state that they have only vague notions as to the needs of patients and staff at the facility. Contact is established with the nursing home and the students receive permission to visit.

The students and their teacher spend an afternoon in the company of patients and staff at the nursing home. They witness the difficulties experienced by staff and patients in undertaking what would normally be regarded as basic activities: visiting the bathroom, turning in a corridor, eating meals, entering and leaving a bed, and so forth. On their return to school, the students review their visit. They are enthusiastic about the opportunities that are open to them by basing their project on the needs of the people who stay at the nursing home. They know, however, that many of the difficulties that they have witnessed are beyond their abilities to tackle in a meaningful way. The students are encouraged to undertake some preliminary research. Their research not only focuses of the technologies and artefacts that are used in similar facilities and how these may be improved, but that also take a close look at ailments some of the patients at the nursing facility suffer from, and the manner in which these can typically incapacitate the individual.

Two students decide to focus their efforts on the design and manufacture of an artefact that will assist a patient, suffering from a degenerative condition that affects limb mobility, to consume a meal with reduced intervention from nursing staff. They are motivated by a number of considerations. While speaking to the woman in question, the students were struck by the evident frustration of the woman as a result of the difficulties she experienced in taking meals without assistance. These difficulties were considered to be within the capacity of the students to address, given very real constraints of time, expertise and finance. With a broad goal in mind, the students were guided by their teacher to undertake an in-depth analysis of the problem. The students undertake parallel streams of research. They look at the nature of the disability they are attempting to ease. They study journals to determine what solutions might already be in place. The students consult with teachers and management to establish availability of suitable resources. As their work progresses, notes, sketches, texts and models accumulate.

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Thinking, Drawing and Designing

The skills that are in evidence in this scenario are manifold. In the first instance, the above account is relayed as an example of design & technology education within a constructivist framework. The role of the teacher, the social contextualisation of the design problem, the students as researchers of their own learning, the relative open-ended nature of the task, the engendering of a social and personal awareness by engagement with the task, and so forth, all reflect constructionist principles. Of particular interest to this author is the use of sketches, diagrams and drawings, not only to convey ideas to others, but as a tool aiding the generation of ideas. This use of sketching, modelling and drawing is taken as evidence of visual thinking and the application of visual-spatial intelligence in a design & technology context. A capacity to think spatially, coupled with an ability to express and enhance that thinking through the preparation of graphical representations, is important for design & technology education. There is a need for courses in design and technology to promote visual thinking and learning in conjunction with skills in graphical representation. In post primary education, students use drawing skills in many different ways. They may produce charts to represents statistical information in a mathematics class; they may sketch experimental equipment as used in a science experiment; students of Art will invariably study the sketching of animate and inanimate objects. However, where the students in the scenario outlined above differ is in the multiplicity of functions that the production of a sketch performs within the design process.

At this point it is necessary to point out that the term ‘graphical representation’ can encompass artefacts such as a pencil sketch, physical models and virtual reality simulations of physical environments. The act of preparing and exploring such representations can meet a number of ends. Some of these are as follows and are offered at this point without reference to research literature. They can, therefore, be regarded as reflecting the author’s experiences and observations.

• The production of a graphic representation a ‘real world’ object involves the visualisation of an artefact and the capacity to mentally rotate that object, thus being able to visualise the object as it appears from different perspectives.
• There are circumstances where artefacts, concepts or courses of action cannot adequately be expressed in verbal/linguistic terms. The capacity to generate and concomitantly, interpret visual information is an important cognitive capacity.
• As well as conveying information to others, sketches and drawings also help to clarify and amplify thinking, particularly where the individual in engaged in the process of solving a problem.
• Where graphical representations are promoted as an aid to thinking, one of the key goals is to provide the students with the capacity to develop their own preferred approach to using representations. Where the representation is intended for consideration by others, it may be necessary for students to conform to agreed standards as they relate to design drawings.
• Students can be encouraged to use various modes of graphical representation to generate and share ideas when working as part of a group.
• It is important to introduce students to differing forms of representation, both formal and informal, which will include the use of computer software and other technical aids.

In essence, the use of graphical representation is considered to support visual thinking. Visual thinking is a key cognitive process in problem solving in a design & technology learning scenario.

Conclusion

There are many ways in which visual thinking and graphical representation can be incorporated into learning. With recent developments in Internet technologies, the ability to produce rich learning materials is at hand to the non-expert. While graphical information may supplement the conveying of information, the real potential is in providing learners with tools that can assist their thinking. Thus, visual thinking is an important cognitive approach to problem solving, and skill in producing and interpreting graphical information is a means to amplify such thinking. It can be argued, therefore, that learners need to be introduced to formal and informal modes of graphical representation. While the focus here is on design & technology education, visual thinking can usefully be employed in a range of other learning situations.

References

Arnheim, Rudolf. Visual Thinking. (London: Faber & Faber: 1970)

Gardner, Howard. Frames of Mind: 2^nd Edition (London: Fontana Press: 1993)

MacFarlane-Smith, I. Spatial Ability (London: University of London Press: 1964)

McGee, N. G. ‘Human Spatial Abilities: Psychometric Studies and Environmental, Genetic, Hormonal and Neurological Influence’ in Psychological Bulletin Vol. 86 (5) 1979 pp. 889 - 819

McKim, R.H. Experiences in Visual Thinking (Monterey: Brooks/Cole: 1972)

Spearman, C. The Abilities of Man (New York: AMS Press: 1970)

Vernon, P. E. The Structure of Human Abilities (London: Methven: 1971)